Masculinity and Femininity in Sports

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The media today portrays a culture as well as a way of life. It not only brings us entertainment, it also is a means of today to keep in touch with the outside world. My discussion will be about sport and media and how this is related to the views of masculinity and femininity. I will use this topic to discuss how meaning structures are used and how people apply ‘meaning systems’. I will also include the significance of ‘people using meaning structures as opposed to being used by them’, an assumption made by Alasuutari. The analysis on the articles, which relate to masculinity and femininity in sport, will explore the distinction between how producers and audiences use ‘meaning systems’.

According to Alasuutari and Corner, ‘meaning systems’ are commonly used in media to send out messages to ‘readers’. Communication media constitutes a culture, as they provide contexts in which meaningful expressions are produced and received (Ericson 15). “There is no single correct analysis of any given text, and it is due to this polysemic nature of meaning systems that brings about the emphasis of discourse (Mckee, 001).

Why does sport matter in terms of gender politics? Two main issues are involved here First is the ideological role of sport in maintaining unequal power relations between men and women, and second is the disparity between resources and amount of media attention given to male and female sport.

“Sport plays a key role in legitimizing particular ideologies around masculinity and femininity that support the domination of women by men. While male domination is being challenged in nearly being challenged in every sector of society, there is a whole field of activity where male dominance just seems to be taken for granted. The implications of this range from the exclusion of women from workplace discussions of sporting events, through the ubiquity of sporting metaphors in the language of business and politics, to the legislation of the male violence.” (Brookes, 00, p14)




The link between sport and violence and/or sexual abuse by men against women has become one of the key issues within sports sociology today. The media has been seen to have direct implication in the link between sport and violence and sexual abuse. There have been indications that incidents of domestic violence increase during periods when particular sporting events are being broadcast. Furthermore, the media play a role in representing domestic violence involving sportsmen in a particular manner.

“Hegemonic masculinity is not a fixed character type, always and everywhere the same. It is, rather, the masculinity that occupies the hegemonic position in a given pattern of gender relations, a position always contestable” (Connell, 15, p 76). “Through its definition in opposition to femininity, hegemonic masculinity works to legitimize not just the subordination of women and the marginalization of gay men, but also other subordinated masculinities, ‘some heterosexual men and boys are too expelled from the circle of legitimacy.” (Connell, 15, p. 68-4)

“Masculinity and femininity are ‘gender projects…processes of configuring practice through time’ (Connell, 15, p.7). According to Connell, there are three sites of gender configuration one is the individual life course, the second is discourse, ideology or culture; and lastly the institutions such as the state, the workplace and the school.” As part of discourse, ideology or culture, how masculinity is represented in the sports media is only one aspect of how hegemonic masculinities are produced and reproduced.

When we see media images that may obvious media images of masculinity in sports, although they do have their significance, we might not be one of athleticism, but one of excessive violence, which is either on or off the field. It is those images that we come across daily, but don’t look twice at, that are most significant in terms of relating the definition of hegemonic masculinity.

Newspaper and television supplements of sports are always filled with images or footage of sportsmen taking part in routine action. Although this is normal everyday coverage, people who see these images are encouraged to equate the controlled aggression central to sport with masculinity. When some form of masculinity is made explicit, it usually is some form of transgression, whether it is on or off the field.

One example of the sensationalized media coverage of a sporting event is when Mike Tyson bit of Evander Holyfield’s ear in a boxing match. They sensationalized the news by adding stories on his criminal records. In the article in appendix 1, ‘Tyson gets image maker’, Tyson is reported to be getting help from an image-maker to restore the tattered reputation of the former heavyweight champion. Because the issue was so publicized, Mike Tyson’s image was totally damaged, the reporting ‘produced a set of essentialist discourse that conflated narratives of race and ethnicticy with deviant or criminal behaviour’ (Boyle and Haynes, cited in Brookes, 00, p. 14). In this case, the media has condemned the action of Tyson as a sportsman. His behaviour is not one to be held up as a model of masculinity to be emulated.

In appendix , “People v. Simpson Unfinished Business, intertexuality can be put into place. It is difficult to make sense of this text without first relating it to other texts within the same context. “Intertexuality refers to the process of making sense of texts in reference to their relations with other texts. It involves the circulation and exchange of meanings, not as atomized bits (words/signs) but as packages of meaning” (Schirato, T & Yell, S, 000, p. 5-71). The O.J. Simpson case was given a lot of hype by the media during its time. The article states that even five years after the case, people are still questioning the outcome of the case. He was charged for the murder of his wife, but somehow he was acquitted. The media sensationalizing this news because of his celebrity status he already had as a sportsman. This is another way in which the media is involved in portraying that masculinity in sport is interrelated to violence and or sexual abuse.



“Boys are expected to play at being men by taking part in aggressive sports but at the same time they are meant to learn when ‘playing the man’ is unacceptable. In other words, in seeking to rehearse or sidestep ‘acceptable’ versions of masculinity, boys have to negotiate various deeply contradictory directives as to what counts and what gets rewarded as mainstream masculinity in society generally, and in sport in particular.” (Hickey, Fitzclarence & Mattews)

Women’s increased success in sport could play a major role in challenging representations of masculinity as the gender of physical prowess. This brings us to the issue of ‘the inequality between men and women within sport and its related activities.’ While there has been a significant increase in women’s participation in sport since the 170s, their contributions still marginalized, particularly in the media. Girls are much less likely to be encouraged to take part in competitive sport as compared to boys. They are also less likely to be able to make a living from it.

Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympic Games, did not think that women had a place in sport. He said “the solemn and periodic exaltation of male athleticism, with internationalism as a base, loyalty as a means, art for its setting, and female applause as reward” (Leigh, 174, p.76). He believed that “ a woman’s glory rightfully came through the number and quality of children she produced, and that as far as sports were concerned, her greatest accomplishment was to encourage her sons to excel rather than to seek records for herself” (Leigh, 174, p.7).

Biological differences in men and women were used to justify the exclusion of women from participating in sports even by the media. “Late nineteenth-century ideologies of femininity defined women in terms of childbearing, and physical activity was seen as something that was potentially dangerous” (Brookes, 00, p.15).

The media portrayal of the female athleticism in that era almost seemed like a joke. To put the terms female and athlete in the same sentence would seem like an oxymoron. Female athletes were not taken seriously at that time, as people did not think that females were capable of achieving great heights in the sporting world. Although now, female athletes are participating more and more in sports, they are still not as extensively portrayed in the media as compared to men.

The manner in which coverage is framed is also significant. There is a lot of stereotyping. In the past, women’s sports were practically ignored by the media. Usually when the featured athlete was female, traditional stereotypes would emerge. There would be elaborate descriptions on the women’s physical appearance, dress, style, and even sexual preference. Sports commentators have also done great damage to a women’s sporting image by creating artificial and sexist references. For example, during the 188 Olympics, while waiting for the women’s downhill skiing to commence, one of ABC’s commentators said, “Once upon a time they were sweet little girls, then something went wrong. They grew up and became downhill skiers. And they are here at the Calgary.” (Cohen, 1, p.17).

“Newspapers have never applied any systematic coverage to women’s sports. Money dictates policy, and the lack of women’s sports coverage is thus reflected” (Cohen, 1, p.176). Studies done on recent trends in the coverage of women’s sports by major daily newspapers reflected a ratio of 1 for exclusive stories addressing men’s sports compared with women’s sports compared with women’s sports; % of the photographs in the sample were of men.

In the article, ‘Fired White Sportscaster Apologizes For Remarks About Venus And Serena Williams; Gets Rehired’ shown in appendix , Audiences use representations of what is said in the media to make their own moral judgements regarding to the story in question. Here, the reporter Rosenberg, has commented that, One time my friend he goes, `Listen, one of these days youre going to find Venus and Serena Williams in Playboy.

I said, `You got a better shot at National Geographic.

People saw this remark as a racist one, although he did not mean it in that way. His explanation was, When I see women that are muscular, classically boys, then thats how I refer to them... Imus, his boss, later rehired Rosenberg. Imus said Its one thing to say things like that--and occasionally stuff gets said on this program by all of us that is inappropriate--but its quite another to feel that way,

Imus added that he is convinced that Rosenberg wasnt expressing any deep-held racist views about Black people being an inferior species”

Although this remark was not meant to be racist, it was sexist. Men in sport are never expected to look fabulous, just athletic. Women on the other hand, have to look good, dress well, be graceful and play beautifully. Even if they were champions, people will still condemn their looks, if they do not look presentable. This has been the perception of the general public, for as long as female athleticism existed.

Images of women will typically be subject to sexualization. The coverage of Florence Griffith-Joyner at the 188 and 1 Olympics are typical illustrations of this superficial visibility. Images of ‘FloJo’ were proliferated, because of her glamorous image, her ‘multicolored high-fashion outfit’, her other persona as a fashion model/designer, focusing on her sexuality rather than her athleticism. In contrast to this, at the same Olympics, gold medallist in the heptathlon, Jackie Joyner Kersee, received must less attention due to her less stereotypically feminine appearance. According to Kane and Greendofer (14), “those who do not match the expected feminine image are represented as unnatural, deviant…”

People will draw conclusions that women’s sports is not about athleticism, rather about appearance and fashion.

Magazines provide unique opportunities to develop feature stories through text, illustration, and photographs. Magazine coverage of women’s sport is far more prolific than television or newspaper coverage. Sports Illustrated (SI) is considered the leading weekly sports publication in the United States. Since it started 154, innovative advertising and marketing campaigns have revolutionized sales. “SI’s superlative photography and striking advertisements are appealing and dramatic, and its in-depth analyses of sport personalities are heavily skewed toward men’s football, basketball, and baseball. In general, portrayal of the women athlete in Sports illustrated has served to confirm the traditional stereotypical ideology about women competing in the “male preserve.” Blatantly sexist terminology persists in much of the reporting (Lumpkins & Willams, cited in Cohen, 17, p.178).

The SI’s annual swimsuit issue is one of the most successful magazines for SI, even after years of feminist condemnation. The covers of SI’s annual swimsuit issue always captures a beautiful girl dressed scantily in a bathing suit. This demonstrates the effectiveness of “soft porn” in promoting sales. The cover of the 1 issue, as shown in appendix 4, used an Olympic motif in sunny Spain, to contrast “model to athlete” and “gold sequins to gold medals,” was exceptionally demeaning to women athletes.

There tends to be trivialization in women’s sports, meaning that the representation of female achievement in sport is considered less significant than the achievements of their male counterparts.

“Achievements of sportswomen who feature in the media are most likely to be represented as personal victories. It is difficult to envisage sportswomen being held up by the media as being representative of the nation…” (Brookes, 00, p.10).

The current very limited coverage of female athletes by the mass media is demeaning, and the entire social construction of female athleticism by the media warrants change. Social consciousness with regard to “sexism” has not begun to elicit the immediate condemnation that negative ethnic or racist statements generate. Whenever racist remarks target male athletes, public response is immediate. Such comments are not tolerated when they occur, they bring immediate apologies and loss of jobs, and spawn special live telecasts devoted to concerns for social change. When individuals respond to similar social atrocities affecting female athletes, their concerns often forgotten.

References

Alasuutari, P (15), Researching Culture, London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif. Sage Publications

Boyle, R. & Haynes R. (000), Power Play Sport, the Media and Popular Culture, Pearson Education

Brookes, R. (00), Representing Sport; London, Oxford University Press

Cohen, G. (11), Media and International Sport Ethical Issues, Journal of the International Council of Health, Physical Education and Recreation

Cohen, G.L, (1), Women in Sport Issues and Controversies, Sage Publications

Connell, R. (15), Masculinities, Allen & Unwin, Sydney

Duncan, M.C., Messner, M.A., & Williams, L., & Jensen, K. (10) Gender stereotyping in televised sports, Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles, Los Angeles

Hickey, C., Fitzclarence, L., Matthews, R., Where the boys are Masculinity Sport and Education, Deakin University Press.

Leigh, M.H (174), The Evolution of Women’s Participation in the Summer Olympic Games, Dissertation Abstracts International

Rayner, P., Wall, P. & Kruger, S. (001), “Image Analysis”, in Media Studies The Essential Introduction, Routledge, London

Sabo, d., & Jansen, S.C. (1), Masculinity and the Media, Sage Publications, Newbury Park

Schirato, T. & Yell, S (000), Framing Contexts, Communications and Cultural Literacy An Introduction, Allen & Unwin, St Leonards

Stuart, C. & Turner, G. (00), The Media & Communications in Australia, Allen & Unwin, S.A

Tolson, A, (16), “Structures”, in Mediations Text and Discourse in Media Studies, London

Appendix 1

Friday, July 11, 17



Tyson gets image maker

LAS VEGAS (AP) -- A former image-maker for presidents Ronald Reagan and George Bush now is in Mike Tysons corner, working to restore the tattered reputation of the former heavyweight champion. Sig Rogich said boxing promoter Don King solicited the help of his crisis management-political consulting firm shortly after the June 8 fiasco in which Tyson was disqualified for biting the ears of Evander Holyfield. On Wednesday, the Nevada State Athletic Commission fined Tyson $ million and revoked his boxing licence.

Rogich said he helped write Tysons public apology in the days after he bit Holyfield, and advised him against attending Wednesdays commission hearing. The commission handed down the most severe penalty it could have, said Rogich, a former member of the panel. I dont think it would have changed if Mike had been there. At one point we thought there might be 1,000 people there (at the hearing) and you never know what someone might have done. Why take the risk? We felt sure his appearance would not have made any difference. Rogich said he met with Tyson the day after the fight and helped draft the four-minute speech the fighter gave June 0. He was very remorseful, very quiet, very saddened by what had happened, Rogich said of the meeting.

I didnt have to tell him much. He knew hed made a terrible mistake and he had to acknowledge it. I told him he had to agree to do it and do it immediately or I couldnt be of any help to him.

What about Tysons future, The future is up to Mike Tyson, he said. Hes going to need some help, some psychological assistance. He needs to take a deep breath, let the waters calm a little, and get his life back together before he thinks about fighting again. Rogich crafted many television commercials for Reagan and served as Bushs presidential assistant for media relations. He was appointed ambassador to his native Iceland before rejoining the Bush re-election campaign.



APPENDIX

NEW YORK--(ENTERTAINMENT WIRE)--May 14, 1--

Updated Version

People v. Simpson Unfinished Business - Why the Publics

Fascination with O.J. Wont Disappear

Five years later the O.J. phenomenon shows few signs of waning across America. It began as that staple of American journalism, the celebrity murder case. Yet it can be argued that no murder case before, or since, has had, and continues to have, as profound an effect on the judicial system and American culture. Court TV anchor

Fred Graham returns to Los Angeles to take an in-depth look at this singularly famous--some would argue, notorious--case and its continuing grip on the public imagination of Americans in a special one-hour premiere, Crime Stories People v. Simpson Unfinished

Business - Monday, June 7 at 10 p.m. (ET).

People v. Simpson Unfinished Business features interviews with experts and key players who offer their candid and sometimes shocking opinions and recollections of the case. Among them are

Simpson defense attorneys Johnnie Cochran and Shawn Chapman;

Simpson prosecutor Rockne Harmon; Nicole Brown Simpsons sister

Denise Brown; Ron Goldmans sister Kim Goldman; witness Kato Kaelin; defense witness and world famous criminologist Dr. Henry Lee; homicide detectives Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter; Daniel Petrocelli, civil attorney who represented the Goldmans in their wrongful death case against Simpson; defense jury expert Jo-Ellan Dimitrius and prosecution jury expert Steve Patterson; Lawrence Schiller, author of American Tragedy, the best-selling account of the Simpson defense; and law professors Laurie Levenson and Paul Butler.

Noted Henry Schleiff, President and CEO, Court TV, The O.J. Simpson case raised pointed questions of race, class and other issues in our justice system that still reverberate today. As the only network to have provided gavel-to-gavel coverage of this landmark criminal trial, Court TV is uniquely suited to offer a compelling, illuminating look back at the events that continue to have a grip on Americans, five years after the fact.

Fred Graham, in addition to his work on People v. Simpson Unfinished Business, serves as Court TVs chief anchor and managing editor and has been with the network since its launch in 11. A journalist, lawyer, broadcaster and anchor, Graham has covered many high-profile trials and legal proceedings. In addition to his reporting on both the criminal and civil Simpson trials, Graham also led Court TVs coverage of the impeachment trial of President Clinton.

Court TV, a 4-hour basic cable network, provides a window on the

American justice system through distinctive programming, which both informs and entertains. As the first and only cable network dedicated to crime and justice, Court TV broadcasts live trials by day and crime and justice programming at night. A service of Time Warner

Entertainment and Liberty Media Corp., Court TV (www.courttv.com) is distributed to 5 million households.

Appendix

Jet

July , 001

Fired White Sportscaster Apologizes For Remarks About Venus

And Serena Williams; Gets Rehired

A White radio sportscaster who was fired after he called tennis superstar Venus Williams an animal and said that she and sister

Serena had a better chance of posing nude for National Geographic than Playboy, recently apologized for his remarks and was rehired.

I want to extend my most sincere apologies to (them) and to anybody else who was offended by my remarks, New York sportscaster Sid Rosenberg said on the air.

I am not the type of guy that says things that are laced with hatred and bias, he added. Unfortunately, things got out of hand ... and I took a couple of days of long, hard thinking. He also reportedly sent a letter of apology to the Williams sisters.

Rosenberg, a sportscaster on radio personality Don Imus show on

WFAN-AM in New York City, was fired after he appeared on the June

5 show and said he found the Williams sisters too masculine-looking.

I cant even watch them play anymore. I find it disgusting. I find both of those, what do you want to call them--theyre just too muscular. Theyre boys.

Rosenberg also said, One time my friend he goes, `Listen, one of these days youre going to find Venus and Serena Williams in Playboy.

I said, `You got a better shot at National Geographic.

Imus responded during the show by calling Rosenberg a moron and a degenerate.

He was fired immediately but later said his comments were not racist.

Nothing could be further from the truth, he told the New York Post.

When I see women that are muscular, classically boys, then thats how I refer to them... Imus later rehired Rosenberg. Its one thing to

say things like that--and occasionally stuff gets said on this program by all of us that is inappropriate--but its quite another to feel that way, Imus explained in the New York Post.

Imus added that he is convinced that Rosenberg wasnt expressing any deep-held racist views about Black people being an inferior species.

Appendix 4

(covers of the magazine sports illustrated







Mind that the sample papers like Masculinity and Femininity in Sports presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!

IT

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Analysis Report

1. What is the problem outlined in the Case Study?

The problem is that the maths teacher wants to set up a spreadsheet so he can look how the students are going with ease. And work out their grades and class averages on the spreadsheet. Also it should show wether the student has past or failed the class.

. What are the needs of the user/s?




The needs of the user, is to be able to mark his students by using a spreadsheet. And also to look at the results of their maths work, and grade them using the correct formulae.

. What information product (solution) is required to solve the problem?

The information product that would be required to solve this problem is Microsoft excel to put the information into the spread sheet

4. What data will be needed to solve the problem?

The data that will be necessary is the student’s grades, for exams, projects, and tests. The possible marks for each assignment, and what is a pass and what is a fail.

)B. Flow Chart



Yes



)C. Identify the Hardware and software that will be needed to create the solution?

The hardware that would be required to make this project work, would be a computer, that has all necessities, like keyboard, mouse etc. Software like Microsoft Excel to make the spreadsheet with ease.

4.

Test Table Formulae

Feature Tested Test Data Expected Result Actual Result

“Student Mark Letter”

=IF(L0%,A+,IF(L80%,A, IF(L70%,B,IF(L60%,C,IF(L50%,D,IF(L40%,E,F)))))) Displays result of the student with a letter grade, depending on their percentage score Works as it should, gives letter result, depending on their percentage grade

“Class Average”

=SUM(GG0)/1

Averages the classes Exam 1 result Didn’t work at first, typing error “=SUM(GG0)/11” Fixed this error, works as expected.





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